A summary of research on the Maharishi Effect

When 1% of the population of a city is practising Transcendental Meditation, or the square root of 1% of the population is practising together in a group, there are a variety of positive improvements in society. This was first predicted by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in 1962 before any research had taken place and this phenomenon is known as the Maharishi Effect. The seven tables below list the benefits to society in different categories of effects. If you click on the authors name, that will in most cases take you either to the original paper or the abstract. At the end of the tables is some information about most of the lead authors.

Table 1: Decreases in political violence

Experimental period(s) Location Reference
1990–2008 Cambodia Fergusson & Cavanaugh (2019)
1983–1985 Lebanon Davies & Alexander (2005)
1983–1985 Worldwide terrorism and international conflict Orme-Johnson et al (2003)
17/12/83 – 6/1/84 Nicaragua, Grenada, Honduras, El Salvador, Columbia, Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Kuwait, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Chad, S.  Africa, Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya, Uganda, Kampuchea, Laos, Vietnam, N. Ireland and Spain. Orme-Johnson et al (1989)
July 82–March 84 Baskinta, Lebanon Nader et al (1989)
31/7/83 – 30/9/83 Lebanon Orme-Johnson et al (1988)
Ten weeks in the autumn 1978 Nicaragua, Middle East, Kampuchea (now Cambodia), Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). Orme-Johnson et al (1989)

Table 2: Decreases in crime and homicide

Experimental Period(s) Location(s) Reference
2000–2016 USA Orme-Johnson et al (2022)
2000–2016 USA Cavanaugh et al (2022)
2007–2010 USA Cavanaugh & Dillbeck (2017)
2007–2010 USA Dillbeck & Cavanaugh (2016)
June, July 1993 Washington D.C. Hagelin et al (1999)
1988–1991 Merseyside, UK Hatchard et al (1996)
1970–1986 & 1972-1986 USA and Canada Dillbeck & Rainforth (1996)
1983–1985 & 1972-1986 Canada Assimakis & Dillbeck (1995)
1979–1985 USA Dillbeck (1990)
1979–1986 State of Iowa Reeks (1990)
17/12/83 – 6/1/84 State of Victoria, Australia, Washington D.C. Karachi, Pakistan Orme-Johnson et al (1989)
9/7/79 – 20/8/79 Massachusets and USA Davies & Aexander (1989)
1981–1983 Washington D.C. Lanford (1989)
1/8/81–15/8/81 & 19/12/81–3/1/82 Netherlands Burgman et al (1989)
1973–June 1976 Cleveland USA Hatchard (1989)
1976–1983 USA & Iowa Orme-Johnson & Gelderloos (1989)
1/8/83 – 30/9/83 Jerusalem, Israel Orme-Johnson et al (1988)
1972–1978 & 1972–1979 40 USA cities, USA, 80 metropolitan areas USA and Washington D.C. Dillbeck et al (1988) full paper and abstract
1980–1981, 1984–1985, 1984, 1979–1981, 12/6/78–12/9/78 respectively Dehli, India, Metro Manila Philippines, Puerto Rico, Metro Manila and Rhode Island USA. Dillbeck et al (1987)
1973–1978 USA Dillbeck et al (1981)
1973 USA Borland and Landrith (1977)

Table 3: Improvements in economic factors

Experimental period(s) Economic variable Location(s) Reference
1994 National competitive advantage New Zealand and Norway Hatchard & Cavanaugh (2017)
1983–1985 & 1972–1986 Strikes Canada Assimakis & Dillbeck (1995)
1979–1986 Unemployment Iowa Reeks (1990)
1976–1983 Gross national product USA Orme-Johnson & Gelderloos (1989)
1979–1988 Misery Index USA Cavanaugh et al (1990)
1979–1988 Misery Index USA Cavanaugh et al (1989)
1979–1988 Misery Index USA Cavanaugh et al (1989)
1983–1984 Stock market Worldwide Cavanaugh et al (1989)
1981–1983 Stock market Washington D.C Lanford (1989)
9/7/79 – 20/8/79 Stock market USA Davies & Aexander (1989)
August Sept 1983 Stock market Israel Orme-Johnson et al (1988)
Jan 82 – May 83 Stock market UK Beresford & Clements (1989)
17/12/83 – 6/1/84 Patent applications USA, Australia, S. Africa and UK Orme-Johnson et al (1989)
1979–1988 Misery Index USA Cavanaugh & King (1988)
1979–1988 Misery Index USA Cavanaugh (1987)
12/6/78–12/9/78 Unemployment Rhode Island Dillbeck et al (1987)

Table 4: Decreases in various kinds of fatalities excluding car accident fatalities

Experimental period(s) Type of fatality Location(s) Reference
2000–2016 Infant mortality USA Orme-Johnson et al (2022)
2007–2010 Infant mortality USA Dillbeck & Cavanaugh (2017)
2007–2010 Various accidental  deaths USA Cavanaugh & Dillbeck (2017)
June, July 1993 Various accidental deaths Washington D.C. Goodman et al (1997)
1970–1986 & 1972–1986 Various accidental deaths USA Dillbeck & Rainforth (1996)
1970–1986 & 1972–1986 Suicide Canada and USA Dillbeck & Rainforth (1996)
1983–1985 & 1972–1986 Suicide Canada Assimakis & Dillbeck (1995)
1979–1985 Suicide USA Dillbeck (1990)
1976–1983 Suicide USA Orme-Johnson & Gelderloos (1989)
1972-1977 Suicide USA Landrith & Dillbeck (1989)
1976–1983 Infant mortality Iowa and USA Orme-Johnson & Gelderloos (1989)
17/12/83 – 6/1/84 Air transport fatalities Worldwide Orme-Johnson et al (1989)
9/7/79 – 20/8/79 Air transport fatalities USA Davies & Aexander (1989)
9/7/79 – 20/8/79 Various accidental deaths Massachusets and USA Davies & Aexander (1989)

Table 5: Decrease in motor vehicle accidents and fatalities

Experimental period(s) Location(s) Reference
2000 – 2016 USA Orme-Johnson et al (2022)
2007–2010 USA Cavanaugh & Dillbeck (2017)
1970–1986 & 1972–1986 Canada and USA Dillbeck & Rainforth (1996)
1970–1986 & 1972–1986 Canada Assimakis & Dillbeck (1995)
1979–1985 USA Dillbeck (1990)
1979–1986 Iowa, USA Reeks (1990)
17/12/83 – 6/1/84 USA, S. Africa, and States of Western Australia, New South Wales, and Victoria, Australia. Orme-Johnson et al (1989)
1976–1983 Iowa and USA Orme-Johnson & Gelderloos (1989)
9/7/79 – 20/8/79 Massachusets & USA Davies & Aexander (1989)
1972-1977 USA Landrith & Dillbeck (1989)
1/8/83 – 30/9/83 Jerusalem Orme-Johnson et al (1988)
12/6/78–-12/9/78 Rhode Island Dillbeck et al (1987)

Table 6: Improvements with factors related to health

Experimental period(s) Health variable Location(s) Reference
2000 – 2016 Drug related deaths USA Dillbeck & Cavanaugh (2023)
2000 – 2016 Drug related deaths USA Orme-Johnson et al (2022)
2007–2010 Drug related deaths USA Dillbeck & Cavanaugh (2017)
June, July 1993 Hospital trauma cases Washington D.C. Goodman et al (1997)
June, July 1993 Emergency psychiatric calls Washington D.C. Goodman et al (1997)
1970–1986 & 1972–1986 Notifiable diseases USA Dillbeck & Rainforth (1996)
1970–1986 & 1972–1986 Alcohol consumption USA Dillbeck & Rainforth (1996)
1970–1986 & 1972–1986 Cigarette consumption Canada and USA Dillbeck & Rainforth (1996)
1983–1985 & 1972–1986 Cigarette consumption Canada Assimakis & Dillbeck (1995)
1976–1983 Cigarette consumption USA Orme-Johnson & Gelderloos (1989)
1976–1983 Alcohol consumption Iowa and USA Orme-Johnson & Gelderloos (1989)
1976–1983 Infectious diseases Iowa and USA Orme-Johnson & Gelderloos (1989)
17/12/83 – 6/1/84 Notifiable diseases USA and Australia Orme-Johnson et al (1989)
1976–1983 Divorce rate Iowa & USA Orme-Johnson & Gelderloos (1989)
1/8/1983–30/9/1983 Fires Jerusalem, Israel Orme-Johnson et al (1988)
12/6/78–12/9/78 Alcohol consumption Rhode Island Dillbeck et al (1987)
12/6/78–12/9/78v Cigarette consumption Rhode Island Dillbeck et al (1987)

Table 7: Improvements in political life

Experimental period Political and social variable Location(s) Reference
1984–1987 USA/Soviet relations USA and Soviet Union Gelderloos et al (2019)
1979–1986 USA/Soviet relations USA and Soviet Union Cavanaugh et al (2018)
1983–1985 Cooperation amongst antagonists Lebanon & Israel Davies & Alexander (2005)
June, July 1993 Presidential approval ratings USA Goodman et al (1997)
June, July 1993 Media positivity towards the President USA Goodman et al (1997)
17/12/83 – 6/1/84 Positive statements from the Head of State USA, Soviet Union & UK[1] Orme-Johnson et al (1989)
1976–1983 Percentage of civil cases reaching trial USA Orme-Johnson & Gelderloos (1989)

Review, Factor Analysis, Response to Critiques, Cambodia and Peru

  1. A review of the research on the Maharishi Effect 1974 to 2017.
  2. A factor analysis of the different influence of the Maharishi Effect on different variables.
  3. Responses to two critiques in 1990 and 2009.
  4. Qualitative research on Cambodia in the period 1980 – 2015.
  5. Qualitative research in Peru between 1980 and 2020.

Author bio

Alexander, C.N. PhD in Psychology from Harvard; 1984 to 1998 Professor of Psychology at Maharishi International University.

Cavanaugh, K.L. PhD, University of Washington (Economics), MA, Stanford University, Graduate School of Education (Psychological Studies in Education), MPA (Master of Public Affairs), Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, AB, Yale University (cum laude). Research Professor and Director of Collective Consciousness Research, Dr. Tony Nader Institute of Research on Consciousness and its Applied Technologies, Maharishi International University; Professor of Applied Statistics Emeritus, College of Business Administration, Maharishi International University.

Davies, J.L. LL.B., M.Litt., M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in law, psychology and political psychology/international conflict management from the Australian National University, the University of New England and Maharishi International University, with additional graduate work at Harvard University. Co-Director of the Partners in Conflict and Partners in Peacebuilding Projects, and Senior Associate with the Center for International Development and Conflict Management (CIDCM), Department of Government and Politics, at the University of Maryland.

Dillbeck, M.C. PhD in Psychology from Purdue University. Emeritus Professor of Psychology at Maharishi International University.

Fergusson, L. Associate Professor of Professional Studies at University of Southern Queensland and Yudhishthira Professor of Vedic Science, Education and the Environment at Maharishi Vedic Research Institute. For the education work he carried out, and described in the research mentioned in table one above, he received the Royal Order of Sahametrei, the highest civilian honour bestowed on a non-Cambodian by the King of Cambodia, His Majesty King Norodom Sihamoni.

Gelderloos, P. PhD in Social Studies from Radboud University, Netherlands

Goodman, R.S. Master’s in Higher Education Administration, MIU. Currently Adjunct Associate Professor, MIU. Studied English at Boston University, PhD in Psychology from Maharishi International University.

Hagelin, J.S. Physics, A.B. summa cum laude from Dartmouth College in 1975 and his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1981. He did research at CERN and the Stanford Linear Accelerator Centre. Dr. Hagelin is a recipient of the prestigious Kilby Award, which recognizes scientists who have made “major contributions to society through their applied research in the fields of science and technology.” The award recognized Dr. Hagelin as “a scientist in the tradition of Einstein, Jeans, Bohr and Eddington.”He is currently director of the Institute of Science, Technology and Public Policy, Professor of physics and President at Maharishi International University, and President of the Global Union of Scientists for Peace.

Hatchard, G.D. PhD in Psychology from Maharishi International University.

Lanford, A.G. PhD in Sociology from Stanford University.

Nader, T.A. Medicine at the University of America in Beirut, PhD in Neuroscience from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, post-doctoral work at Harvard. Head of the international Transcendental Meditation organisations in over 100 countries.

Orme-Johnson, D.W. Professor Emeritus, MIU, BA from Columbia and PhD in experimental psychology from the University of Maryland.

Peer-reviewed journals that have published research on the Maharishi Effect

  • Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly
  • International Journal of Neuroscience
  • Journal of Conflict Resolution
  • Journal of Crime and Justice
  • Journal of Mind and Behavior
  • Journal of Offender Rehabilitation
  • Journal of Social Behavior and Personality
  • Psychological Reports
  • Psychology, Crime, and Law
  • Social Indicators Research
  • Social Science Perspectives Journal
  • Society of Neuroscience Abstracts

Professional associations that have published research on the Maharishi Effect in their conference proceedings

  • American Statistical Association
  • American Political Science Association
  • Midwest Management Society

Variables studied in the Maharishi Effect research

Intra- and international conflicts

Variables studied in the “Intra- and International Conflicts” category include:

  • a Peace/War Index
  • war deaths and injuries
  • S./Soviet interactions
  • S. President statements about the Soviets
  • international relations
  • war bombing
  • property damage
  • casualties
    terrorism data from the Rand Corporation
  • international conflicts
  • data from the Conflict and Peace Data Bank

Crime and violent death

Variables studied in the “Crime and Violent Death” category include:

  • FBI Uniform Crime Report statistics on total crime
  • violent crime
  • suicides
  • homicides
  • motor vehicle fatalities

Other social indicators

  • Variables studied in the “Other social indicators” category include:
  • the stock market
  • unemployment and inflation (the Misery Index)
  • S. Quality of Life Index including data on motor vehicle fatalities, suicides, homicides, accidental deaths, notifiable diseases, alcohol and cigarette consumption
  • Canada Quality of Life Index — motor vehicle fatalities, suicides, homicides, and cigarette consumption
  • Rhode Island Quality of Life Index — crime, mortality, traffic fatalities, auto accidents, pollution, unemployment, beer consumption
  • S. Quality of Life Index — crime, civil trials, infectious diseases, infant mortality, suicides, cigarette and alcohol consumption, GNP, patent applications, divorces, and traffic fatalities
  • Israeli Quality of Life Index — war deaths, crime, auto accidents, fires, stock market, and national mood

TM research

Randomised Controls Trials (RCTs)

Randomized Controlled Trials on Transcendental Meditation

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  2. Alexander CN, Langer EJ, Newman RI, Chandler HM, Davies JL. Transcendental Meditation, mindfulness, and longevity: an experimental study with the elderly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1989 57(6):950-964
  3. Alexander CN, Schneider RH, Staggers F, Sheppard W, Clayborne BM, Rainforth MV, Salerno J, Kondwani K, Smith S, Walton K, Egan B. Trial of stress reduction for hypertension in older African Americans: II. Sex and risk subgroup analysis. Hypertension 1996 28(2):228-237
  4. Allen, C.P Effect of TM, EMG, Biofeedback relaxation, muscle tension and stuttering a Quantitative Comparison. Vol 4 Collected Papers paper 298, 2287-2289.
  5. Ballou D. The Transcendental Meditation program at Stillwater Prison. In DWOrme-Johnson, JT Farrow (eds),Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme: Collected Papers, Volume 1 (pp.713-718). Rheinweiler, West Germany: MERU Press, 1977
  6. Barnes VA, Kapuku GK, Treiber FA. Impact of Transcendental Meditation on Left VentricularMass in African American Adolescents. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Volume 2012 Article ID 923153, doi:10.1155/2012/923153
  7. Barnes VA, Schneider RH, Alexander CN, Rainforth M, Staggers F, Salerno, J. Impact of Transcendental Meditation on mortality in older African Americans with hypertension—eight-year follow-up. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 2005 17(1):201-216
  8. Barnes VA, Treiber FA, Davis H. Impact of Transcendental Meditation on cardiovascular function at rest and during acute stress in adolescents with high normal blood pressure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2001 51(4):597-605
  9. Barnes VA, Treiber FA, Johnson MH. Impact of stress reduction on ambulatory blood pressure in African American adolescents. American Journal of Hypertension 2004 17(4):366-369
  10. Barnes VA, Bauza LB, Treiber FA. Impact of stress reduction on negative school behavior in adolescents. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 2003 1(1):10
  11. Bellehsen M, Stoycheva V, Cohen BH, Nidich S. A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial of Transcendental Meditation as Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Veterans. J Trauma Stress. 2022 Feb;35(1):22-31
  12. Benn, R. Transcendental Meditation (TM) and emotional functioning in fifth grade students. Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies 8: 480–481, 2003.
  13. Bleasdale, J. E., Peterson, M. C., & Nidich, S. (2019). Effect of Meditation on Social/Emotional Well-Being in a High-Performing High School. Professional School Counseling, 23(1).
  14. Bonamer JI, Kutash M, Hartranft SR, Aquino-Russell C, Bugajski A, Johnson A. Clinical Nurse Well-being Improved Through Transcendental Meditation: A Multimethod Randomized Controlled Trial. J Nurs Adm. 2024 Jan 1;54(1):16-24.
  15. Brautigam E. Effects of the Using the Transcendental Meditation pro­gram on drug abusers: a prospective study. In DW Orme-Johnson, JT Farrow. Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme: Collected Papers, Volume 1 (pp.506-514). Rheinweiler, West Germany: MERU Press, 1977
  16. Brooks JS, Scarano T. Transcendental Meditation in the treatment of post-Vietnam adjustment. Journal of Counseling and Development 1985 64:212-215
  17. Broome JR, Orme-Johnson D, Schmidt-Wilk J. Worksite stress reduction through the Transcendental Meditation program. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 2005 17(1):235-276
  18. Castillo-Richmond A, Schneider RH, Alexander CN, Cook R, Myers H, Nidich S, Haney C, Rainforth M, Salerno J. Effects of stress reduction on carotid atherosclerosis in hypertensive African Americans. Stroke 2000 31(3):568-573
  19. Chhatre, Sumedha; Metzger, David S.; Frank, Ian; Boyer, Jean; Thompson, Edward; Nidich, Sanford; Montaner, Luis J.; and Jayadevappa, Ravishankar. Effects of behavioural stress reduction Transcendental Meditation intervention in persons with HIV. AIDS Care: Psychological and Socio-medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV DOI:10.1080/09540121.2013.764396, 2013.
  20. Curtin, T. G. The relationship between Transcendental Meditation and adaptive regression. Doctoral thesis (summary), School of Education, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, 1973. Findings also published in Dissertation Abstracts International 34(4): 1696A, 1973.
  21. Dick LD, Ragland RE. A study of the Transcendental Meditation program in the service of counseling. In DW Orme-Johnson, JT Farrow (eds), Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme: Collected Papers, Volume 1 (pp.600-604). Rheinweiler, West Germany: MERU Press, 1977
  22. Dillbeck MC. The effect of the Transcendental Meditation technique on anxiety level. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1977 33(4):1076–1078
  23. Dillbeck, M. C.; and Bronson, E. C. Short-term longitudinal effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on EEG power and coherence. International Journal of Neuroscience 14: 147–151, 1981.
  24. Dillbeck MC. Meditation and flexibility of visual perception and verbal problem solving. Memory and Cognition 1982 10(3): 207-215
  25. Dixit, R., Srivastava, T.R., Dixit, M. (2017). An evaluation of the effect of Pranayamas and Transcendental meditation on high blood pressure subjects: A non-blinded randomized controlled trial. Indian Journal of Clinical Anatomy and Physiology, 4(2):254–258.
  26. Elder C, Aickin M, Bauer V, Cairns J, Vuckovic N. Randomized trial of a whole-system Ayurvedic protocol for type 2 diabetes. Alternative Therapies 2006 12(5):24-30
  27. Elder, C., Nidich, S., Colbert, R. et al. Reduced psychological distress in racial and ethnic minority    students practicing the transcendental meditation program. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 2011 38(2), 109–116
  28. Elder C, Nidich S, Moriarty F, Nidich R. Effect of transcendental meditation on employee stress, depression, and burnout: a randomized controlled study. Perm J. 2014 Winter;18(1):19-23.
  29. Ferguson, P. C.; and Gowan, J. C. Psychological findings on Transcendental Meditation. Findings also published in Journal of Humanistic Psychology 16(3): 51–60, 1976.
  30. Fields JZ, Walton KW, Schneider RH, Nidich SI, Pomerantz R, Suchdev P, Castillo-Richmond A, Payne K, Clark ET, Rainforth M. Effect of a multimodality natural medicine program on carotid atherosclerosis in older subjects: a pilot trial of Maharishi Vedic Medicine. American Journal of Cardiology 2002 89(8):952-958
  31. Friend, K. E & Maliszewski, M. More on the Reliability of the Kinesthetic aFter-effects Measure and need for Stimulation.. Journal of Personality Assessment 1978 42(4) 385-391.
  32. Gaylord C, Orme-Johnson D, Travis F. The effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique and progressive muscular relaxation on EEG coherence, stress reactivity, and mental health in black adults. International Journal of Neuroscience 1989 46(1/2):77-86
  33. Gaylord, C.; Orme-Johnson, D. W.; Willbanks, M.; Travis, F.; Rainforth, M.; and Reynolds, B. The effects of the Transcendental Meditation Program on self-concept and EEG coherence in black college students. Findings presented at the annual meeting of the Iowa Academy of Science, Storm Lake, Iowa, USA, April 1989. Findings also published in abstract insert in The Journal of the Iowa Academy of Science 96(1), A31–A32, 1989.
  34. Gore S, Abrams A, Ellis G. The effect of statewide implementation of the Maharishi Technology of the Unified Field in the Vermont Department of Corrections. In RA Chalmers, G Clements, H Schenkluhn, M Weinless (eds), Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme: Collected Papers, Volume 4(pp.2453-2464). Vlodrop, Netherlands: MERU Press, 1989
  35. Haaga, David A.F.; Grosswald, Sarina; Gaylord-King, Carolyn; Rainforth, Maxwell; Tanner, Melissa; Travis, Fred; and Schneider, Robert H. Effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on substance use among university students. Cardiology Research and Practice, Article ID 537101, 8 pages, 2011. Doi:10.4061/2011/537101.
  36. Harding, S. D. The effects of Transcendental Meditation on an auditory temporal discrimination task. Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, Sussex, England, 1981.
  37. Herzberger HG. Voice quality and Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program: vocal acoustics in health and higher states of awareness. PhD dissertation, Maharishi University of Management, Fairfield, Iowa. Retrieved from http://www.mum.edu/dissertations/herzberger.html. Dissertation Abstracts International 1992 53, no. 06B:3190 (Order No. 9228950)
  38. Jackson Y. Learning disorders and the Transcendental Meditation pro­gram: retrospects and prospects. In RA Chalmers, G Clements, H Schenkluhn, M Weinless (eds), Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme: Collected Papers, Volume 2 (pp.1000-1011). Vlodrop, Netherlands: MERU Press, 1989.
  39. Jayadevappa R, Johnson JC, Bloom BS, Nidich S, Desai S, Chhatre S, Razian D, Schneider RH. Effectiveness of Transcendental Meditation on functional capacity and quality of life of African Americans with congestive heart failure: a randomized control study. Ethnicity and Disease 2007 17:72-77.
  40. Joshi SP, Wong AI, Brucker A, et al. Efficacy of Transcendental Meditation to Reduce Stress Among Health Care Workers: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open.2022;5(9):e2231917.
  41. Kember P. The Transcendental Meditation technique and postgraduate academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology 1985 55:164-166
  42. Klimes-Dougan B, Chong LS, Samikoglu A, Thai M, Amatya P, Cullen KR, Lim KO. Transcendental meditation and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning: a pilot, randomized controlled trial with young adults. Stress. 2020 Jan;23(1):105-115.
  43. Kniffki C. Tranzendentale Meditation und Autogenes Training- Ein Vergleich (Transcendental Meditation and Autogenic Training: A Comparison). Munich: Kindler Verlag, 1979
  44. Kondwani KA, Schneider RH, Alexander CN, Sledge C, Staggers F, Clayborne BM, Sheppard W, Rainforth M, Krouse L, Orme-Johnson DW. Left ventricular mass regression with the Transcendental Meditation technique and a health education program in hypertensive African Americans. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 2005 17:181-200
  45. Leach MJ, Francis A, Ziaian T. Transcendental Meditation for the improvement of health and wellbeing in community-dwelling dementia caregivers [TRANSCENDENT]: a randomised wait-list controlled trial. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2015 May 8;15:145.
  46. Leach, M. Lorenzon, H. Transcendental Meditation for Women Affected by Domestic Violence: A Pilot Randomised, Controlled Trial. Journal of Family Violence 19/4/23 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-023-00561-3
  47. Loiselle M, Brown C, Travis F, Gruener G, Rainforth M, Nidich S. Effects of Transcendental Meditation on Academic Physician Burnout and Depression: A Mixed Methods Randomized Controlled Trial. J Contin Educ Health Prof. 2023 Summer 01;43(3):164-171.
  48. MacLean CR, Walton KG, Wenneberg SR, Levitsky DK, Mandarino JV, Waziri R, Hillis SL, Schneider RH. Effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on adaptive mechanisms: changes in hormone levels and responses to stress after four months of practice. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1997 22(4):277-295
  49. Miskiman DE. The effect of the TM program on the organization of thinking and recall (secondary organization). In DW Orme-Johnson, JT Farrow (eds), Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme: Collected Papers, Volume 1 (385-392). Rheinweiler, West Germany: MERU Press, 1977
  50. Miskiman DE. Performance on a learning task by subjects who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique. In DW Orme-Johnson, JT Farrow (eds), Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme: Collected Papers, Volume 1 (382-384). Rheinweiler, West Germany: MERU Press, 1977
  51. Nidich SI, Fields JZ, Rainforth MV, Pomerantz R, Cella D, Kristeller J, Salerno JW, Schneider RH. A randomized controlled trial of the effects of Transcendental Meditation on quality of life in older breast cancer patients. Integrative Cancer Therapies 2009 8(3):228-234
  52. Nidich S, Rainforth M, Haaga D, Hagelin J, Salerno J, Travis F, Tanner M, Gaylord-King C, Grosswald S, Schneider R. A randomized controlled trial on effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on blood pressure, psychological distress, and coping in young adults. American Journal of Hypertension 2009 22(12):1326-1331
  53. Nidich SI et al. Reduced symptoms of depression in older minority subjects at risk for cardiovascular disease: randomized controlled mind-body intervention trials [Study on African Americans]. Paper presented at 31st Annual Meeting of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, 9 April 2010, Seattle, Washington, USA.
  54. Nidich SI et al. Reduced symptoms of depression in older minority subjects at risk for cardiovascular disease: randomized controlled mind-body intervention trials [Study on Native Hawaiians]. Paper presented at 31st Annual Meeting of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, 9 April 2010, Seattle, Washington, USA.
  55. Nidich S, O’connor T, Rutledge T, Duncan J, Compton B, Seng A, Nidich R. Reduced Trauma Symptoms and Perceived Stress in Male Prison Inmates through the Transcendental Meditation Program: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Perm J. 2016 Fall;20(4):16-007
  56. Nidich S, Seng A, Compton B, O’connor T, Salerno JW, Nidich R. Transcendental Meditation and Reduced Trauma Symptoms in Female Inmates: A Randomized Controlled Study. Perm J. 2017;21:16-008. .
  57. Nidich S, Mills PJ, Rainforth M, Heppner P, Schneider RH, Rosenthal NE, Salerno J, Gaylord-King C, Rutledge T. Non-trauma-focused meditation versus exposure therapy in veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018 Dec;5(12):975-986.
  58. Norris KC, Salerno J, Bairey Merz CN, Kaushik V, Gelleta S, Castillo A, Nidich S, Gaylord-King C, Schneider RH. A randomized controlled trial of meditation and health education on carotid intima-media thickness and major adverse cardiovascular events in Black men and women. Front Med (Lausanne). 2025 Mar 19;12:1513699.
  59. Orme-Johnson DW, Wallace RK, Dillbeck MC, Alexander CN, Ball OE. Improved functional organization of the brain through the Maharishi Technology of the Unified Field as indicated by changes in EEG coherence and its cognitive correlates: a proposed model of higher states of consciousness. In RA Chalmers, G Clements, H Schenkluhn, M Weinless (eds), Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme: Collected Papers, Volume 2 (pp.2245-2266). Vlodrop, Netherlands: MERU Press, 1989
  60. Paul-Labrador M, Polk D, Dwyer JH, Velasquez I, Nidich SI, Rainforth M, Schneider RH, Bairey Merz CN. Effects of a randomized controlled trial of Transcendental Meditation on components of the metabolic syndrome in subjects with coronary heart disease. Archives of Internal Medicine2006 166(11):1218-1224
  61. Pelletier KR. Influence of Transcendental Meditation upon autokinetic perception. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1974 39(7):1031-1034
  62. Pirot, M. The effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique upon auditory discrimination. Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, 1973.
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Research on Students

The seven tables below summarise the majority of TM research on children, students and those of student age, (up to their mid 20s), as opposed to the general public, according to two criteria, area of research and experimental design. There are two points to note:

  • The findings are similar independent of the methodology used. A meta-analysis on anxiety found that the effects were strongest in the randomised studies.The strongest methodology found the best results.[i]
  • There are many methods to produce these kinds of effects but what is impressive is the sheer range of the effects of transcending on so many diverse variables and indicates that enlivening consciousness is fundamental to all aspects of life.

In the tables below I have provided the lead author and the date of publication. You can find the majority of references by searching here: https://researchtm.net/search-form/There are seven studies where I have indicated the research was on school staff rather than students.

As these tables only examine research on young people it does not include research on other variables where older adults were the subjects. These include research on changes in bio-chemistry, in the brain and gene expression. As well as reducing the risk in cardiovascular disease improvements have been found in asthma, insomnia, dental health, fibromyalgia, reduced stress in caregivers and those with HIV. There have been several studies on military veterans showing a reduction in symptoms of PTSD starting with veterans of the Vietnamese war. A decrease in PTSD symptoms has also been found in Congolese refugees and in Japan after the 20ll earthquake-tsunami. An important finding is a decrease in reconviction rates of prison inmates who have been released from prison. The tables below do refer to some benefits for teaching and administrative staff in schools but there have been many other studies in other kinds of work place providing evidence of greater ability to cope with stress, better relationships with co-workers, increased productivity and improved decision making. Some studies are preliminary but are cross-validated by other research. This includes improvements in empathy, marital satisfaction and reduced violence against women. Newborn babies of mothers who practised TM showed longer periods of quiet alertness than controls.

Own control

Area of research Headline findings
Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes (Wallace 1970 & 1971) Decreased oxygen consumption p<0.001, cardiac output p<0.005, heart rate p<0.001, arterial lactate concentration, increased skin resistance p>0.001, (West 1973) Increased skin resistance p<0.1.
EEG (Wallace 1970 & 1971) Increasedalpha wave activity. (Nidich 1981) EEG frontal alpha coherence positively correlated with math achievement p<0.01. (Nidich 1982) EEG coherence correlated with pro-social behaviour. (Nidich 1983) EEG alpha coherence correlated with length of time practising TM. (Travis 1998) Absence of distraction effects in EEG. (Travis 2001) Experiences of Transcending associated with lower breath rate p<0.0067, higher respiratory sinus arrhythmia p<0.00082, EEG alpha amplitude p<0.00001, EEG coherence p<0.0021. (Travis 2017) Distinguished TM from meditation methods of concentration and contemplation. (Travis 2021) Increases on Brain Integration Scale p<0.002,
Health (EUROPE Project 2019) Decreased stress p<0.004, anxiety, emotional exhaustion, decreased negative attitudes p<0.003, increased optimism and positive expectations, job satisfaction p<0.014, autonomy p<0.003 well-being p<0.001. (This is teachers only) (FRIENDS project 2020) Decreased anxiety, perceived stress, emotional exhaustion, p<0.001, emotional hardness p<0.011, increased job satisfaction p<0.033, intrinsic motivation p<0.007. (This is teachers only)Ng 2022) Improved physical health p<0.000. (Aquino-Russell 2023) Reduced stress.
Intelligence, learning and academic performance (Collier 1973, Heaton 1974) Increased grade point average p<0.001, P<0.0003. (Aron 1981) Increased intelligence p<0.005, self-confidence p<0.05, sociability p<0.01, psychological health p<0.025, social maturity p<0.005. (Dillbeck 1986) Increased intelligence p<0.001, field independence p<0.005. (Nidich 1986, 1989) Improvement in maths, reading, work study skills, vocabulary p<0.01. (Belham 1988) Increased capacity of attention, memory, emotional functioning, physical strength.  (Muehlman 1988) Increased academic achievement p<0.001, intelligence p<0.01, correlated with length of time practising TM. (Rosaen 2006) Increased restful alertness, emotional intelligence, academic performance. (Grosswald 2008) Reduced symptoms of ADHD p<0.0285, improved executive function p<0.022, behavioural regulation p<0.00001, meta-cognition p<0.0025. (Ng 2021) Increased field independence p<0.000. (Fergusson 2021, 2022) Improved health and performance at school p<0.01. (Conti 2022) Improved working memory p<0.01. (Kanjananiyot 2024) Improved concentration, creativity, emotional balance p<0.01
Development of personality (Chandler 2005) Increased moral reasoning p<0.002, intimacy p<0.02. (Tomljenović 2015) Decreased anxiety (p<0.05). (Burns 2019) Reduced perceived stress, anxiety p<0.025, increased mental flexibility p<0.01. (FRIENDS project 2020) Decreased selfish behaviour p<0.0025, disruptive behaviour p<0.039, anxiety p<0.002, fear of speaking in the classroom p<0.001, tension and impulsivity p<0.001, increased resilience p<0.001. (Travis 2021) Increased global constructive thinking p<0.055, emotional coping p<0.043, decreased categorical thinking p<0.026.

Passive control group

Area of research Headline findings
Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes (Jevning 1978) Decrease in cortisol p<0.01.
Physiological  efficiency and stability (Orme-Johnson 1973, Greater autonomic stability p<0.05.
Health (Fergusson 1995) Reduced anxiety p<0.001, depression p<0.007, increased self-esteem p<o.05, general health p<0.01. (Bandy 2020) Reduced PTSD p<0.0001.
Motor and perceptual ability and athletic performance Dillbeck 1982) Improved visual perception p<0.05.
Intelligence, learning and academic performance (Abrams 1972) Improved recall p<0.05. (Tjoa 1972) Decreased neuroticism p<0.01, increased intelligence p<0.032. (Miskiman 1972) Superior learning ability p<0.01. (Kory 1974) Increased grade point average p<0.05. (Nataraj 1975) Increased ability to concentrate, reading comprehension,, memory p<0.01. (Overbeck 1975) Reduced anxiety p<0.05, school dislike p<0.01.(Scher 1975) Superior recall p<0.001. (Brown 1976) Greater intellectual orientation, altruism, psychological stability. (Harding 1976) Reduced neuroticism p<0.02. (Harrison 1976) Improved performance on a spatial localization task. P<0.001. (Pagano 1977) Superior right hemispheric functioning p<0.005. (Orme-Johnson 1981) Increased field independence p< 0.001. (Kotchabhakdi 1982) Improved intelligence, learning ability,, moral judgement p<0.001. (Alexander 1984) Enhanced cognitive development p<0.0001. (Baer 1984) Increased perception of personal growth p<0.001. (Gelderloos 1987) Increased field independence p<0.0001. (Nidich 1988) Improved school atmosphere p<0.01. (Fergusson 1992, 1993) Increased field independence correlated  with artistic ability and grade point average. P<0.05. (Dixon 2005) Increased psychological differentiation p<0.05, intelligence p<0.05. (Warner 2005) Increased working memory and attention p<0.002, cognitive competence p<0.0001. (Vela-Valenzuela 2021) Intellectual ability p<0.02, personal well-being, p<0.039, academic performance -<0.05. (Fergusson 2022) Improved health and performance at school p<0.01. (Fergusson 2024) Improved health and school performance p<0.00001.
Development of personality (Orme-Johnson 1972) Decreased anxiety p<0.05, hypochondria p<0.05, schizophrenia p<0.05. (Nidich 1973) Increased self-actualisation p<0.05, decreased anxiety p<0.05. (Orme-Johnson 1974) Increased self-actualisation p<0.01. (Nidich 1982) Reduced anxiety p0<0.025.  (Nidich 1983) Enhanced principled moral thinking p<001. (Nidich 1983) Improved moral atmosphere in a high school. p<0.01. (Gelderloos 1987) Increased positive attitudes p<0.002. (Gelderloos 1987) Increased autonomy p<0.001, creativity p<0.0001, spirituality p<0.048, well-being p<0.0008, integration p0<0.006 (Gelderloos 1989) More frequent experiences of higher states of consciousness p<0.004. (Gelderloos 1990). Improved psychological health p<0.03. (Wendt 2015))Reduced anxiety, increased resilience p<0.05.  (Fergusson 2019) Improved mental health p<0.05, self-esteem p<0.03.
Rehabilitation  (Nidich 1975) Higher level of moral maturity p<0.0.001. (Alexander 2003) Improvement in Loevinger’s self-development scale p<0.0005, reduced anxiety p<0.001, aggression, tension p<0.05. (Hawkins 2003) Improvement in intelligence related measures p<0.05, field independence p<0.01, reduced cognitive distortion p<0.036. (Orme-Johnson 2003) Increased stability of the autonomic nervous system p<0.001, reduced behavioural rigidity p<0.025, social introversion p<0.01.

Active control group

Area of research Headline findings
Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes (Jevning 1977) Decreased blood lactate. (Jevning 1977) Increased plasma phenylalanine concentration p<0.01. (Jevning 1978). Decrease hepatic blood flow, arterial lactate, increased cardiac output p<0.05. (O’Halloran 1983) Increased argentine vasopressin p<0.05, galvanic skin resistance decreased anxiety p<0.01. (Sari 2022) Increase in immune cells p<0.05.
EEG (Dillbeck 1981) Improved efficiency on a concept learning task p<0.05.  (Orme-Johnson 1981) increased alpha EEG coherence p<0.052 correlated with creativity p<0.001. (Badawi 1983) Increased EEG coherence correlated with respiratory suspension. (Nidich 1983) High frontal EEG alpha coherence correlated with cosmic orientation responses p<0.05. (Travis 1991) Higher levels of frontal central EEG coherence outside of meditation p<0.05. (Travis 2000) Increased frequency of experiences of TranscendentalConsciousness were associated with increased cortical preparatory responses on reaction time trials. p<0.2, fewer contingent negative variation distraction effects on divided attention reaction time trials p<0.0003.
Physiological  efficiency and stability (Wallace 1982) Paired  H-reflex recovery correlated with EEG coherence and academic performance. (Wallace 1983) Improved neurological efficiency p<0.05.
Intelligence, learning and academic performance (Tjoa 1975) Decreased neuroticism p<0.01, increased intelligence p<0.05. (Berrettini 1976) Improved short-term recall p<0.05.
Development of personality (Nidich 1982) Reduced anxiety p<0.025. (Elder 2011) Reduced psychological distress p<0.01, anxiety p<0.05.
Rehabilitation (Orme-Johnson 1971) Increased physiological stability and psychological adaptability. (Nidich 1980) Reduced use of recreational drugs p<0.01.  (Alexander 2003) Increased ego development p<0.00025, frequency of postconceptual experience of higher states of consciousness p<0.01, aggression p<0.05, schizophrenic symptoms p<0.05.

Matched group: passive controls

Area of research Headline findings
Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes (Walton 1995) Practitioners of TM displayed psychoneuroendocrine patterns characteristic of lower stress p<0.01.
EEG (Dillbeck 1986) High frontal EEG coherence  p<0.002, correlated with efficient performance on a cognitive task p<0.05, greater physiological stability p<0.05. (Travis 2002) Increased global alpha EEG power, frontal coherence and unique patterns of preparatory brain responses to simple and choice reaction trials. combined signficiance, p<0.0001.
Intelligence, learning and academic performance (Cranson 1991) Increased intelligence p<0.005, reaction time p<0.0001. (Fergusson 1995) Increased non-verbal intelligence p<0.001. (Rani 1996) Greater attention regulation ability p<0.05. (Rani 2000) Greater cognitive flexibility p<0.01, field independence p<0.05. attention regularity p<0.01. (Sridevi 2003) Greater field independence p<0.01, spatial reasoning p<0.01, right hemispheric orientation p<0.05. (Alexander 2005) More rapid cognitive development p<0.0001. (Nidich 2011) Improvements in maths p<0.001, English p<0.01. (Colbert 2013) Higher graduation rate p<0.001, college acceptance p<0.023, reduced dropout rate p<0.001.
Development of personality (Sridevi 2003) Increased conscientiousness, diplomatic, organized, patient p<0.01, practical p<0.05. (Chandler 2005) Increased ego development p<0.0001. (EUROPE project 2019) Decreased anxiety of humiliation, p<0.20, anxiety of coping strategies p<0.022, increased cooperation p<0.031. (Valosek 2019) Improved social-emotional competencies p<0.001.

Matched group: active controls

Area of research Headline findings
EEG (Orme-Johnson 1980) Increased EEG phase coherence in alpha p<0.043 and theta p<0.37 frequencies.
Motor and perceptual ability and athletic performance (Orme-Johnson 1973) Faster reaction times p<0.001.
Intelligence, learning and academic performance (Fergusson 1976) Decreased anxiety p<0.001, depression p<0.005, neuroticism p<0.01, increased self-actualisation p<0.001. (Travis 1979) Improved figural flexibility p<0.006, figural originality p<0.0005, verbal fluency p<<0.02. (Dixon 2005) self-concept p<0.01, analytical ability p<0.03.

Randomized passive control

Area of research Headline findings
Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes (Klimes-Dougan 2020) Reduced cortisol p<0.02.
EEG (Travis 2009) Increased frontal EEG alpha power p<0.05, interhemispheric frontal and parietal alpha coherence p<0.045, intrahemispheric beta coherence in frontal areas p<0.049. (Travis 2009) Increase on brain integration scales p<0.05, reduced sleepiness p<0.007. (Travis 2011) Decreased of theta/beta ratio of EEG power p<0.018, increased theta EEG coherence, letter fluency p<0.024, parental rating of increased ability to focus on school work, organizational ability p<0.002, ability to work independently, happiness p<0.002, sleep quality p<0.003. (Travis 2018) Increase on brain integration school p<0.001. (This is not on students but school administrators.)
Health (Miskiman 1972) Faster recovery from sleep deprivation p<0.5 (Nidich 2009) Reduced psychological distress p<0.004, anxiety p<0.003, depression p<0.012, anger p<0.016, blood pressure p<0.028, increased coping ability p<0.003. (Haaga 2011) Reduced alcohol consumption p<0.05. (Elder 2014) Reduced perceived stress, depression, teacher burnout p<0.05. (This is not on students but school staff.)  (Akila 2016) Reduced occupied stress p<0.05. (This is on school teachers.) (Valosek 2021) Reduced burnout p<0.019, perceived stress p<0.001,  fatigue p0.001, increased resilience p<0.014. (This is not on students but school staff). (Bonamer 2024) Decreased post traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, burnout, increased flourishing.
Intelligence, learning and academic performance (Kember 1985) Improved academic performance p<0.019. (Benn 2003) Increased positive affect p<0.02, mood p<0.05, adaptability p<0.02, reduced negative affect p<0.002. (Tanner 2009) Increased mindfulness p<0.001.
Development of personality (Fergusson 1976)  Decreased anxiety p<0.001). (Curtin 1973) Increased adaptive regression p<0.01. (Rosenthal 1974) Improved self-actualisation and self-concept. (Nidich 2016) Reduced total trauma symptoms, anxiety, depression, dissociation, sleep disturbance subscales, perceived stress, (all p values < 0.001). (Travis 2018) Reduced anxiety p<0.001, anger p<0.002, depression, fatigue, increased vigour p<0.001. (This is on school administrators.) (Valosek 2018) Increased emotional intelligence p<0.003, decreased perceived stress p<0.02.(This is on school administrators.) (Ruini 2022 semi-randomized) Reduced emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity/Inattention, total difficulties, external symptoms, relationship problems p<0.001.
Rehabilitation (Ramirez 1975) Decreased neuroticism p<0.0002, depression p<0.0058, aggression p<0.0072,  increased self-concept p<0.0001,.

Randomized active control

Area of research Headline findings
Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes (Maclean 1997) Reduced cortisol p<0.003, thyroid-stimulating hormone p<0.02, increased growth hormone p<0.05. (Barnes 2012) Decreased left ventricular mass p<0.04, less increase in body mass index p<0.003.
EEG (Dillbeck 1981) Increased EEG frontal alpha coherence compared with relaxation p<0.05. (Gaylord 1989 x 2) Increased EEG coherence p<0.016, mental health p<0.036, decreased neuroticism p<0.047, anxiety p<0.0006. (Orme-Johnson 1981) Increased EEG alpha and theta frontal coherence p<0.02, correlated with increased cognitive performance p<0.001 and emotional stability p>0.025.
Physiological  efficiency and stability (Sultan 1975) Increased relaxation during and outside of TM p<0.01.
Health (Barnes 2001, 2004) Reduced blood pressure, increased ability to cope with stress, p<0.3. (Wenneberg 1997) Reduced ambulatory diastolic blood pressure p<0.04. (Valosek 2021) improved quality of sleep p<0.013.
Motor and perceptual ability and athletic performance (Pirot 1973) Increased perceptual acuity p<0.013. (Pelletier 1974) Increased field independence p<0.001. (Reddy 1974) Improvements in athletic performance p<0.001, reaction times p<0.001, cardiovascular efficiency, p<0.0011, respiratory efficiency p<0.001, intelligence p<0.001 and lower blood pressure p<0.001. (Herzberger 1992) Improved voice quality p<0.055.
Intelligence, learning and academic performance (Miskiman 1972) Improved organisation of thinking p<0.05 and recall p<0.001. (Schecter 1975) Increased creativity p<0.001, intellectual performance p<0.001, comfort with working with complex situations p<0.05, energy p<0.001, innovation p0.01, self-esteem p<0.01, tolerance p<0.001, decreased anxiety p<0.001, conformity p<0.01. (So 2001) Increased creativity p<0.000000008, fluid intelligence p<0.001, speed of information processing p<0.003, field independence p<0.00000004, constructive thinking p<0.00009, decreased anxiety p<0.00001. (Barnes 2003) Decreased absenteeism p<0.05, school rule infractions p<0.01, suspension days p<0.04. (Valosek 2021) Improved English language p<0.033.
Development of personality (Dillbeck 1977) Reduced anxiety p<0.01. Reduced nervousness p<0.0005, depression p<0.01, emotional lability p0.05, anxiety p<0.005. (Jackson 1977) Increased self-actualisation p<0.001. (Bleasdale 2019) Decreased perceived stress p<0.040, anxiety p<0.028, anger p<0.047.(Valosek 2021) Decreased emotional stress symptoms p<0.03, anger p<0.027.
Rehabilitation (Dick 1973) Increase in inner directedness, living in the present p<0.005

[i] Eppley, K. R., Abrams, A. I., & Shear, J. (1989). Differential effects of relaxation techniques on trait anxiety: a meta–analysis. J of clinical psychology, 45(6), 957–974. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097–