Research on Students
The seven tables below summarise the majority of TM research on children, students and those of student age, (up to their mid 20s), as opposed to the general public, according to two criteria, area of research and experimental design. There are two points to note:
- The findings are similar independent of the methodology used. A meta-analysis on anxiety found that the effects were strongest in the randomised studies.The strongest methodology found the best results.[i]
- There are many methods to produce these kinds of effects but what is impressive is the sheer range of the effects of transcending on so many diverse variables and indicates that enlivening consciousness is fundamental to all aspects of life.
In the tables below I have provided the lead author and the date of publication. You can find the majority of references by searching here: https://researchtm.net/search-form/There are seven studies where I have indicated the research was on school staff rather than students.
As these tables only examine research on young people it does not include research on other variables where older adults were the subjects. These include research on changes in bio-chemistry, in the brain and gene expression. As well as reducing the risk in cardiovascular disease improvements have been found in asthma, insomnia, dental health, fibromyalgia, reduced stress in caregivers and those with HIV. There have been several studies on military veterans showing a reduction in symptoms of PTSD starting with veterans of the Vietnamese war. A decrease in PTSD symptoms has also been found in Congolese refugees and in Japan after the 20ll earthquake-tsunami. An important finding is a decrease in reconviction rates of prison inmates who have been released from prison. The tables below do refer to some benefits for teaching and administrative staff in schools but there have been many other studies in other kinds of work place providing evidence of greater ability to cope with stress, better relationships with co-workers, increased productivity and improved decision making. Some studies are preliminary but are cross-validated by other research. This includes improvements in empathy, marital satisfaction and reduced violence against women. Newborn babies of mothers who practised TM showed longer periods of quiet alertness than controls.
Own control
| Area of research | Headline findings |
|---|---|
| Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes | (Wallace 1970 & 1971) Decreased oxygen consumption p<0.001, cardiac output p<0.005, heart rate p<0.001, arterial lactate concentration, increased skin resistance p>0.001, (West 1973) Increased skin resistance p<0.1. |
| EEG | (Wallace 1970 & 1971) Increasedalpha wave activity. (Nidich 1981) EEG frontal alpha coherence positively correlated with math achievement p<0.01. (Nidich 1982) EEG coherence correlated with pro-social behaviour. (Nidich 1983) EEG alpha coherence correlated with length of time practising TM. (Travis 1998) Absence of distraction effects in EEG. (Travis 2001) Experiences of Transcending associated with lower breath rate p<0.0067, higher respiratory sinus arrhythmia p<0.00082, EEG alpha amplitude p<0.00001, EEG coherence p<0.0021. (Travis 2017) Distinguished TM from meditation methods of concentration and contemplation. (Travis 2021) Increases on Brain Integration Scale p<0.002, |
| Health | (EUROPE Project 2019) Decreased stress p<0.004, anxiety, emotional exhaustion, decreased negative attitudes p<0.003, increased optimism and positive expectations, job satisfaction p<0.014, autonomy p<0.003 well-being p<0.001. (This is teachers only) (FRIENDS project 2020) Decreased anxiety, perceived stress, emotional exhaustion, p<0.001, emotional hardness p<0.011, increased job satisfaction p<0.033, intrinsic motivation p<0.007. (This is teachers only)Ng 2022) Improved physical health p<0.000. (Aquino-Russell 2023) Reduced stress. |
| Intelligence, learning and academic performance | (Collier 1973, Heaton 1974) Increased grade point average p<0.001, P<0.0003. (Aron 1981) Increased intelligence p<0.005, self-confidence p<0.05, sociability p<0.01, psychological health p<0.025, social maturity p<0.005. (Dillbeck 1986) Increased intelligence p<0.001, field independence p<0.005. (Nidich 1986, 1989) Improvement in maths, reading, work study skills, vocabulary p<0.01. (Belham 1988) Increased capacity of attention, memory, emotional functioning, physical strength. (Muehlman 1988) Increased academic achievement p<0.001, intelligence p<0.01, correlated with length of time practising TM. (Rosaen 2006) Increased restful alertness, emotional intelligence, academic performance. (Grosswald 2008) Reduced symptoms of ADHD p<0.0285, improved executive function p<0.022, behavioural regulation p<0.00001, meta-cognition p<0.0025. (Ng 2021) Increased field independence p<0.000. (Fergusson 2021, 2022) Improved health and performance at school p<0.01. (Conti 2022) Improved working memory p<0.01. (Kanjananiyot 2024) Improved concentration, creativity, emotional balance p<0.01 |
| Development of personality | (Chandler 2005) Increased moral reasoning p<0.002, intimacy p<0.02. (Tomljenović 2015) Decreased anxiety (p<0.05). (Burns 2019) Reduced perceived stress, anxiety p<0.025, increased mental flexibility p<0.01. (FRIENDS project 2020) Decreased selfish behaviour p<0.0025, disruptive behaviour p<0.039, anxiety p<0.002, fear of speaking in the classroom p<0.001, tension and impulsivity p<0.001, increased resilience p<0.001. (Travis 2021) Increased global constructive thinking p<0.055, emotional coping p<0.043, decreased categorical thinking p<0.026. |
Passive control group
| Area of research | Headline findings |
|---|---|
| Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes | (Jevning 1978) Decrease in cortisol p<0.01. |
| Physiological efficiency and stability | (Orme-Johnson 1973, Greater autonomic stability p<0.05. |
| Health | (Fergusson 1995) Reduced anxiety p<0.001, depression p<0.007, increased self-esteem p<o.05, general health p<0.01. (Bandy 2020) Reduced PTSD p<0.0001. |
| Motor and perceptual ability and athletic performance | Dillbeck 1982) Improved visual perception p<0.05. |
| Intelligence, learning and academic performance | (Abrams 1972) Improved recall p<0.05. (Tjoa 1972) Decreased neuroticism p<0.01, increased intelligence p<0.032. (Miskiman 1972) Superior learning ability p<0.01. (Kory 1974) Increased grade point average p<0.05. (Nataraj 1975) Increased ability to concentrate, reading comprehension,, memory p<0.01. (Overbeck 1975) Reduced anxiety p<0.05, school dislike p<0.01.(Scher 1975) Superior recall p<0.001. (Brown 1976) Greater intellectual orientation, altruism, psychological stability. (Harding 1976) Reduced neuroticism p<0.02. (Harrison 1976) Improved performance on a spatial localization task. P<0.001. (Pagano 1977) Superior right hemispheric functioning p<0.005. (Orme-Johnson 1981) Increased field independence p< 0.001. (Kotchabhakdi 1982) Improved intelligence, learning ability,, moral judgement p<0.001. (Alexander 1984) Enhanced cognitive development p<0.0001. (Baer 1984) Increased perception of personal growth p<0.001. (Gelderloos 1987) Increased field independence p<0.0001. (Nidich 1988) Improved school atmosphere p<0.01. (Fergusson 1992, 1993) Increased field independence correlated with artistic ability and grade point average. P<0.05. (Dixon 2005) Increased psychological differentiation p<0.05, intelligence p<0.05. (Warner 2005) Increased working memory and attention p<0.002, cognitive competence p<0.0001. (Vela-Valenzuela 2021) Intellectual ability p<0.02, personal well-being, p<0.039, academic performance -<0.05. (Fergusson 2022) Improved health and performance at school p<0.01. (Fergusson 2024) Improved health and school performance p<0.00001. |
| Development of personality | (Orme-Johnson 1972) Decreased anxiety p<0.05, hypochondria p<0.05, schizophrenia p<0.05. (Nidich 1973) Increased self-actualisation p<0.05, decreased anxiety p<0.05. (Orme-Johnson 1974) Increased self-actualisation p<0.01. (Nidich 1982) Reduced anxiety p0<0.025. (Nidich 1983) Enhanced principled moral thinking p<001. (Nidich 1983) Improved moral atmosphere in a high school. p<0.01. (Gelderloos 1987) Increased positive attitudes p<0.002. (Gelderloos 1987) Increased autonomy p<0.001, creativity p<0.0001, spirituality p<0.048, well-being p<0.0008, integration p0<0.006 (Gelderloos 1989) More frequent experiences of higher states of consciousness p<0.004. (Gelderloos 1990). Improved psychological health p<0.03. (Wendt 2015))Reduced anxiety, increased resilience p<0.05. (Fergusson 2019) Improved mental health p<0.05, self-esteem p<0.03. |
| Rehabilitation | (Nidich 1975) Higher level of moral maturity p<0.0.001. (Alexander 2003) Improvement in Loevinger’s self-development scale p<0.0005, reduced anxiety p<0.001, aggression, tension p<0.05. (Hawkins 2003) Improvement in intelligence related measures p<0.05, field independence p<0.01, reduced cognitive distortion p<0.036. (Orme-Johnson 2003) Increased stability of the autonomic nervous system p<0.001, reduced behavioural rigidity p<0.025, social introversion p<0.01. |
Active control group
| Area of research | Headline findings |
|---|---|
| Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes | (Jevning 1977) Decreased blood lactate. (Jevning 1977) Increased plasma phenylalanine concentration p<0.01. (Jevning 1978). Decrease hepatic blood flow, arterial lactate, increased cardiac output p<0.05. (O’Halloran 1983) Increased argentine vasopressin p<0.05, galvanic skin resistance decreased anxiety p<0.01. (Sari 2022) Increase in immune cells p<0.05. |
| EEG | (Dillbeck 1981) Improved efficiency on a concept learning task p<0.05. (Orme-Johnson 1981) increased alpha EEG coherence p<0.052 correlated with creativity p<0.001. (Badawi 1983) Increased EEG coherence correlated with respiratory suspension. (Nidich 1983) High frontal EEG alpha coherence correlated with cosmic orientation responses p<0.05. (Travis 1991) Higher levels of frontal central EEG coherence outside of meditation p<0.05. (Travis 2000) Increased frequency of experiences of TranscendentalConsciousness were associated with increased cortical preparatory responses on reaction time trials. p<0.2, fewer contingent negative variation distraction effects on divided attention reaction time trials p<0.0003. |
| Physiological efficiency and stability | (Wallace 1982) Paired H-reflex recovery correlated with EEG coherence and academic performance. (Wallace 1983) Improved neurological efficiency p<0.05. |
| Intelligence, learning and academic performance | (Tjoa 1975) Decreased neuroticism p<0.01, increased intelligence p<0.05. (Berrettini 1976) Improved short-term recall p<0.05. |
| Development of personality | (Nidich 1982) Reduced anxiety p<0.025. (Elder 2011) Reduced psychological distress p<0.01, anxiety p<0.05. |
| Rehabilitation | (Orme-Johnson 1971) Increased physiological stability and psychological adaptability. (Nidich 1980) Reduced use of recreational drugs p<0.01. (Alexander 2003) Increased ego development p<0.00025, frequency of postconceptual experience of higher states of consciousness p<0.01, aggression p<0.05, schizophrenic symptoms p<0.05. |
Matched group: passive controls
| Area of research | Headline findings |
|---|---|
| Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes | (Walton 1995) Practitioners of TM displayed psychoneuroendocrine patterns characteristic of lower stress p<0.01. |
| EEG | (Dillbeck 1986) High frontal EEG coherence p<0.002, correlated with efficient performance on a cognitive task p<0.05, greater physiological stability p<0.05. (Travis 2002) Increased global alpha EEG power, frontal coherence and unique patterns of preparatory brain responses to simple and choice reaction trials. combined signficiance, p<0.0001. |
| Intelligence, learning and academic performance | (Cranson 1991) Increased intelligence p<0.005, reaction time p<0.0001. (Fergusson 1995) Increased non-verbal intelligence p<0.001. (Rani 1996) Greater attention regulation ability p<0.05. (Rani 2000) Greater cognitive flexibility p<0.01, field independence p<0.05. attention regularity p<0.01. (Sridevi 2003) Greater field independence p<0.01, spatial reasoning p<0.01, right hemispheric orientation p<0.05. (Alexander 2005) More rapid cognitive development p<0.0001. (Nidich 2011) Improvements in maths p<0.001, English p<0.01. (Colbert 2013) Higher graduation rate p<0.001, college acceptance p<0.023, reduced dropout rate p<0.001. |
| Development of personality | (Sridevi 2003) Increased conscientiousness, diplomatic, organized, patient p<0.01, practical p<0.05. (Chandler 2005) Increased ego development p<0.0001. (EUROPE project 2019) Decreased anxiety of humiliation, p<0.20, anxiety of coping strategies p<0.022, increased cooperation p<0.031. (Valosek 2019) Improved social-emotional competencies p<0.001. |
Matched group: active controls
| Area of research | Headline findings |
|---|---|
| EEG | (Orme-Johnson 1980) Increased EEG phase coherence in alpha p<0.043 and theta p<0.37 frequencies. |
| Motor and perceptual ability and athletic performance | (Orme-Johnson 1973) Faster reaction times p<0.001. |
| Intelligence, learning and academic performance | (Fergusson 1976) Decreased anxiety p<0.001, depression p<0.005, neuroticism p<0.01, increased self-actualisation p<0.001. (Travis 1979) Improved figural flexibility p<0.006, figural originality p<0.0005, verbal fluency p<<0.02. (Dixon 2005) self-concept p<0.01, analytical ability p<0.03. |
Randomized passive control
| Area of research | Headline findings |
|---|---|
| Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes | (Klimes-Dougan 2020) Reduced cortisol p<0.02. |
| EEG | (Travis 2009) Increased frontal EEG alpha power p<0.05, interhemispheric frontal and parietal alpha coherence p<0.045, intrahemispheric beta coherence in frontal areas p<0.049. (Travis 2009) Increase on brain integration scales p<0.05, reduced sleepiness p<0.007. (Travis 2011) Decreased of theta/beta ratio of EEG power p<0.018, increased theta EEG coherence, letter fluency p<0.024, parental rating of increased ability to focus on school work, organizational ability p<0.002, ability to work independently, happiness p<0.002, sleep quality p<0.003. (Travis 2018) Increase on brain integration school p<0.001. (This is not on students but school administrators.) |
| Health | (Miskiman 1972) Faster recovery from sleep deprivation p<0.5 (Nidich 2009) Reduced psychological distress p<0.004, anxiety p<0.003, depression p<0.012, anger p<0.016, blood pressure p<0.028, increased coping ability p<0.003. (Haaga 2011) Reduced alcohol consumption p<0.05. (Elder 2014) Reduced perceived stress, depression, teacher burnout p<0.05. (This is not on students but school staff.) (Akila 2016) Reduced occupied stress p<0.05. (This is on school teachers.) (Valosek 2021) Reduced burnout p<0.019, perceived stress p<0.001, fatigue p0.001, increased resilience p<0.014. (This is not on students but school staff). (Bonamer 2024) Decreased post traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, burnout, increased flourishing. |
| Intelligence, learning and academic performance | (Kember 1985) Improved academic performance p<0.019. (Benn 2003) Increased positive affect p<0.02, mood p<0.05, adaptability p<0.02, reduced negative affect p<0.002. (Tanner 2009) Increased mindfulness p<0.001. |
| Development of personality | (Fergusson 1976) Decreased anxiety p<0.001). (Curtin 1973) Increased adaptive regression p<0.01. (Rosenthal 1974) Improved self-actualisation and self-concept. (Nidich 2016) Reduced total trauma symptoms, anxiety, depression, dissociation, sleep disturbance subscales, perceived stress, (all p values < 0.001). (Travis 2018) Reduced anxiety p<0.001, anger p<0.002, depression, fatigue, increased vigour p<0.001. (This is on school administrators.) (Valosek 2018) Increased emotional intelligence p<0.003, decreased perceived stress p<0.02.(This is on school administrators.) (Ruini 2022 semi-randomized) Reduced emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity/Inattention, total difficulties, external symptoms, relationship problems p<0.001. |
| Rehabilitation | (Ramirez 1975) Decreased neuroticism p<0.0002, depression p<0.0058, aggression p<0.0072, increased self-concept p<0.0001,. |
Randomized active control
| Area of research | Headline findings |
|---|---|
| Metabolic, biochemical and cardiovascular changes | (Maclean 1997) Reduced cortisol p<0.003, thyroid-stimulating hormone p<0.02, increased growth hormone p<0.05. (Barnes 2012) Decreased left ventricular mass p<0.04, less increase in body mass index p<0.003. |
| EEG | (Dillbeck 1981) Increased EEG frontal alpha coherence compared with relaxation p<0.05. (Gaylord 1989 x 2) Increased EEG coherence p<0.016, mental health p<0.036, decreased neuroticism p<0.047, anxiety p<0.0006. (Orme-Johnson 1981) Increased EEG alpha and theta frontal coherence p<0.02, correlated with increased cognitive performance p<0.001 and emotional stability p>0.025. |
| Physiological efficiency and stability | (Sultan 1975) Increased relaxation during and outside of TM p<0.01. |
| Health | (Barnes 2001, 2004) Reduced blood pressure, increased ability to cope with stress, p<0.3. (Wenneberg 1997) Reduced ambulatory diastolic blood pressure p<0.04. (Valosek 2021) improved quality of sleep p<0.013. |
| Motor and perceptual ability and athletic performance | (Pirot 1973) Increased perceptual acuity p<0.013. (Pelletier 1974) Increased field independence p<0.001. (Reddy 1974) Improvements in athletic performance p<0.001, reaction times p<0.001, cardiovascular efficiency, p<0.0011, respiratory efficiency p<0.001, intelligence p<0.001 and lower blood pressure p<0.001. (Herzberger 1992) Improved voice quality p<0.055. |
| Intelligence, learning and academic performance | (Miskiman 1972) Improved organisation of thinking p<0.05 and recall p<0.001. (Schecter 1975) Increased creativity p<0.001, intellectual performance p<0.001, comfort with working with complex situations p<0.05, energy p<0.001, innovation p0.01, self-esteem p<0.01, tolerance p<0.001, decreased anxiety p<0.001, conformity p<0.01. (So 2001) Increased creativity p<0.000000008, fluid intelligence p<0.001, speed of information processing p<0.003, field independence p<0.00000004, constructive thinking p<0.00009, decreased anxiety p<0.00001. (Barnes 2003) Decreased absenteeism p<0.05, school rule infractions p<0.01, suspension days p<0.04. (Valosek 2021) Improved English language p<0.033. |
| Development of personality | (Dillbeck 1977) Reduced anxiety p<0.01. Reduced nervousness p<0.0005, depression p<0.01, emotional lability p0.05, anxiety p<0.005. (Jackson 1977) Increased self-actualisation p<0.001. (Bleasdale 2019) Decreased perceived stress p<0.040, anxiety p<0.028, anger p<0.047.(Valosek 2021) Decreased emotional stress symptoms p<0.03, anger p<0.027. |
| Rehabilitation | (Dick 1973) Increase in inner directedness, living in the present p<0.005 |
[i] Eppley, K. R., Abrams, A. I., & Shear, J. (1989). Differential effects of relaxation techniques on trait anxiety: a meta–analysis. J of clinical psychology, 45(6), 957–974. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097–